The team is composed of individuals with the capabilities like- individuals highly respected by others in the agency, individual that strongly supports for the change, each individual should represent the various areas which will get affected by the change.
Then the change team can hold workshops to get recommendations for improving performance of the agency. A facilitator at the workshop first stated the current process to the workshop attendees. At the end of this workshop, there were around ideas on the board. Set priorities: Once all the suggestions are on the table, the next step is to decide which suggestions to incorporate in the action plan and in what sequence.
One recommendation given by Frank Ostroff is to construct 2x2 matrix like shown below. After putting each recommendation in one of these buckets, it is really easy to say that the recommendations that we should consider fall into the bucket of high performance low difficulty. But some times it happens that the initiative has such a big impact so that even though the difficulty level is high, it is recommended that we should consider that suggestion.
In the example of OSHA, they used similar metrics to identify which ideas to implement first. In this exercise, they found that they needed to spend on five weeks worth of training to staff to implement the process redesign. Everybody agreed on the fact that the cost of training is justified as the initiative will have significant impact on the performance. Roll out the program: It is really important for the agencies to identify the places to start the change program. The staff members of these offices became virtual members of the change team, making sure whether the ideas put through in the workshop were practically possible and well suited in the field.
Training plan was developed. The people from the change team were available to answer any questions, provide guidance, and to note down what worked will and what did not.
After success of the pilot phase, the change implementation was extended to incorporate more offices. Each office going through a change had one observer who was observing the process as it went through the change process.
The observer, along with the representative from change team, made sure that the there was no problem implementing the change. But because this change initiative had already made a huge impact on the employees, OSHA did not change its track as it was happening before change initiative, and were able to succeed achieving the goal of improving performance against its mission.
Principle 4: Take a comprehensive approach To be successful in redesigning the organization, the various factors must be taken in to consideration. Some of those factors include leadership, structure, processes, infrastructure including technology , people, and management.
First is it is in the nature of bureaucrats to respect barriers to change. Good leaders do not always knock down the barriers but they try to find the ways around it. SOF needed a speed boat. But it generally takes 10 to 15 years to actually get the equipment in a traditional way in the military. SOF used innovative approach. They gave a chance to industry vendors to build three prototypes. Then after very through evaluation, they selected one prototype.
This whole process took 37 months as compared to 10 to 15 years by traditional approach. The other problem is that leaders in public sector think that their efforts of improving performance against company mission will be questionable.
In this case, leaders must convince the stakeholders about their sincerity. If the stakeholders, in this case employees, are convinced that the leader is committed to the work, employees are going to listen to the leader.
Healthcare Unlike government industry, healthcare is similar to the other private sector organizations when it comes to managing change. As part of the integration, the emergency services of both hospitals would merge under single leadership. As part of this case study, we will examine the design of proposed future organization. We will also identify and explore the solutions for the potential barriers to this change. The aim of this law is to downsize the military n the post-cold war era.
The one feature of the BRAC is to create 6 medical research centers of excellence which resides in different geographic locations under one roof. These two medical centers are just 16 miles apart from each other. So they have competed with each other for their patients as well as worked together on different programs for a good cause.
Previously, these two organizations tried to merge managerial functions under single roof of Joint Military Medical Command. But they failed in that merger and they went back to military service-specific lines of reporting. For designing the future merger of the two facilities, it is really important to analyze existing hierarchical structure between the two organizations.
The important observation from the analysis of these two organizations is that both medical centers have very different leadership, they maintain separate budgets, and sharing only takes place when the overall mission coincides with each other or only if they got orders from the higher authority to do so. The effect of this difference is apparent when we see he departments of emergency medicine of both organizations.
But at WHMC, the situation was variable. The past few leaders have been without any relevant experience to the emergency medicine. Question: Given the background of the two organizations, what do you think are the challenges in merging the two organizations and how will you solve the problem? Challenges Even though the BRAC law ordered integration of the two facilities, it did not give any additional points about how to go about doing it. Specifically, there should be one organization which will be the lead institution.
There is no single chief executive officer CEO identified. As both organization have different line of authority, conflicts will defiantly arise through the integration process. The integration of two organizations into a single organization means reduced overhead and streamline organizational chart. So this merger was interpreted by some employees as downsizing and loss of their jobs.
It is known that at least few people are going to loose their jobs, especially, the key leaders. Solution After identifying the challenges, the leaders tried to apply best practices to make the change successful. There were three major points that were taken into consideration while proposing the design.
De Lorenzo, Robert A, Lessons learned This case is still under progress and should me done with the complete merger by The following are the lessons learned from the process till now.
It is important to have a clear vision to have a successful transformation or a merger. Change Management: The merger of the two organization having different organizational cultures and separate values is not new to SAMMC.
The large health care managers were attempted to merge the organizations and their lessons learned apply to this merger as well. Greenberg's work on barriers to change provides some useful insight. Four of his five top barriers are apparent in this case: a structural inertia, b group inertia, c Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and d previous failures.
This proposal will make sure that all he medical operations are under single control command. One positive effect of this merger is the increased awareness of the military specific services. Lessons learned from change management implementation The following lessons learned are drawn from the implementation of organizational change in few New Zealand public sector organizations.
Strang, Gleisner, Howlett, Loth, But these are very generic lessons that can be applied to all of the change management projects that are undertaken. Even though the following lessons learned are drawn from public sector change, these also apply to private sector. Analyze the context of change The objectives of the change exercise, expectations of people related to change and the environment in which the change is taking place determine the options for approaching change. Tackle people issues People-related issues during a change process are the most important.
The change leader needs to understand reactions to change and deal with staff concerns directly. Maintain open lines of communication Build staff buy-in and minimize resistance to change by keeping people informed about the change.
Real-life stories can be useful sometime. Recognize cultural issues Understand how cultural issues can interrupt the change process and deal with them, especially in merger situations. Maintain the momentum of change External demands can be useful to reinforce the need for change and create urgency.
Once momentum is gained, finding ways to continue to move forward and avoid retreating to past behaviors can be challenging.
Chapter Summary This chapter gives information about the history of change management. To evolve and implement a productive change, all the three aspects should be considered. Otherwise, if one of them is neglected, the whole change process can be jeopardized.
The section discusses various issues and problems of managing change of these areas through case studies and offers the guiding principles that are essential for managing respective changes. These principles and theories are vital for understanding both why and how to use change management with situational awareness and necessary modifications based on the specific change and the particular organization that is being changed.
Section C is a summary of the major contributions to the field of change management. When relevant, the strengths and weaknesses of each model are described, as well as their relationship with similar models.
Section D explores the parallels between the models from Section C to better understand the convergence of these various theories of thought. While each model and set of observations regarding change management has differences, many represent a common thread of ideas. The convergence of these fields of thought seems to represent iterative progression towards a common, more generalizable method of modeling change in an organization.
Section E and F talk about the applications of the change management in various organizations. We talked about how the change should be managed in the public sector organizations using few examples in the public sector. We also summarized lessons learned from the implementation of organizational change in the public sector organizations in New Zealand.
These lessons learned are very important to keep in mind while implementing any type of change in the organization. References Ostroff, F. Change Management in Government. Campbell, R. Change Management in Health Care. The Health Care Manager.
Kotter, J. The heart of change: real-life stories of how people change their organizations. Burnes, B. Dessler, G. Haddad, C. Hiatt, J. Lorenzi, N. Ott, J. Leading Change. Our iceberg is melting: Changing and succeeding under any conditions. New York: St. Martin's Press. Hiatt, Jeffrey Smith, M. Taylor, F. Establishing the Ministry of Social Ceveopment. Military medicine. Executive exit: Multiple perspectives on managing the leadership transition.
Retrieved from Blis database. Carey, D. Picking the right insider for CEO succession. Harvard Business Review, 87 1 , Ending the CEO succession crisis. Harvard Business Review, 83 2 , The last act of a great CEO. Managerial succession and organizational effectiveness. The American Journal of Sociology, 69 1 , Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Retrieved from WorldCat Shen, W.
Will succession planning increase shareholder wealth? Strategic Management Journal, 24 2 , Picking the right transition strategy. Managing Change in Organizational Development. The current models used in Change Management. The strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches and when to use them. The ideas behind the concept of Organizational Development 4. How to apply Change Management strategies to specific business situations. Introduction Though a young field, Change Management has a varied landscape of opinions for the best approach on how to maximize chances for success.
Now that we know the history of Change Management and some of the basic principles behind it, it is time to learn about the models of Change Management being used today. Beginning with the work of John Kotter and continuing through the Socio-Technical Systems model, the Iceberg model, and the 7-S model theories of Change Management, this chapter will introduce you to the current models and theories being used in Change Management.
While other approaches to Change Management exist, each of the models presented here demonstrates the fundamental principles of how planned change can be executed in real-world organizations. One of the common threads throughout the models is the necessity for understanding the context and environment of the 1: Figure planned changed, Eight Steps especially for Successful the people Large-Scale Changeand culture of the affected organization.
Increase urgency Models of Change Management 2. Build the guiding team Kotter Approach 3. Get the vision right What is it? Communicate for buy-in While the previous approaches established 5. Empower action a solid groundwork of techniques an organization 6. Create short-term wins 7. According to author John Kotter, the answer may lie in the difficulty of changing the behavior of people in an organization.
Kotter originally established his basic tenants of change management in an article published in the Harvard Business Review. He has since fleshed out his theories in subsequent books.
In his book Leading Change, Kotter explains the fundamental steps for creating change, and in The Heart of Change, he describes how people can overcome the challenges of each step.
Rather than using charts and graphs to persuade members of an organization that change is needed, Kotter proposes personal reflection for determining change strategy. Only then will an individual be able to adapt his or her behavior to the situation. Kotter, , p. By building a framework for leveraging the skills and ideas of the people in the organization, and generating a feeling of the need for change in every employee, the change process will have the best chance for success.
Once an individual realizes that change needs to take place, the first step is to increase urgency throughout the organization. People must know why the need is important in addition to knowing what the actual need entails. An example of this is a manager who videotaped customer statements to highlight customer dissatisfaction with their product, which was then played during a meeting Kotter, , p.
This demonstration incited an emotional response strong enough to energize a change effort. This team must have the right mix of skills and diversity to achieve results, as well as the capacity for trust and teamwork. The purpose of this guiding team is to establish the vision and strategy for change. The vision should be a concise statement of where the team sees the organization in the future.
The strategy outlines the process in which the organization will achieve their vision Kotter, , p. In order to get as many people in the organization as possible to work towards the common vision established by the guiding team, the vision must be communicated for buy-in. The vision should be communicated by both words and actions, such as demonstrating commitment to budget- cutting by stripping out the luxuries of the executive floor of the main office building Kotter, , p.
Empowering action and creating short-term wins are two concepts that are closely tied to each other. Empowering action means removing anything in the way of people who are trying to achieve the vision, including other people, rules, and negative mindsets.
Once empowered, employees begin achieving short-term wins in the early stages of the change effort, such as streamlining a single paper trail in an organization as a precursor to increasing overall organizational efficiency. Not letting up and making change stick are two additional concepts that are also closely tied to one another.
Not letting up refers to avoiding complacency after short-term wins. Making change stick refers to the effort involved in avoid slipping back into old habits. Demonstrating a commitment to change through a major signal to employees, such as remodeling an office building, promotes a sense of community that falls in line with this new vision Kotter, , p.
By using the Kotter approach, the need for change is translated into a visual, and often emotional, symbol of what the problem is and what solution is necessary.
The Kotter approach is also suitable for organizations that have a clear direction in mind, but little momentum for change exists in both managers and employees. Communicating a need in terms of urgency, and speaking to individuals on a personal level, can fuel the organizational momentum required to complete the change as needed.
When not to use it A less appropriate situation for using the Kotter approach would be one in which the need for change is difficult to translate into terms that are concrete and can be visualized by employees to create urgency. Some changes are necessarily strategic in nature, and often very abstract, in which case a more top-down approach to change management might be preferred.
Further, the Kotter approach does not extensively cover the means and methods for implementing change. Instead, it relies on enabling managers and employees to follow a common vision, which will ideally result in the proper changes taking place. When extensive assistance is needed to formulate strategy in a detailed, technical environment, the Kotter approach falls short.
Finally, when small-scale changes are needed are small- scale, reflecting an adjustment of existing strategies and visions, the Kotter approach is less effective in that it is designed for large-scale, organization-wide changes.
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Those norms purporting to create obligations or duties and permissions are called deontic norms see also deontic logic. The concept of deontic norm is already an extension of a previous concept of norm, which would only include imperatives, that is, norms purporting to create duties. The understanding that permissions are norms in the same way was an important step in ethics and philosophy of law.
In addition to deontic norms, many other varieties have been identified. For instance, some constitutions establish the national anthem.
These norms do not directly create any duty or permission. They create a "national symbol". Other norms create nations themselves or political and administrative regions within a nation. The action orientation of such norms is less obvious than in the case of a command or permission, but is essential for understanding the relevance of issuing such norms: When a folk song becomes a "national anthem" the meaning of singing one and the same song changes; likewise, when a piece of land becomes an administrative region, this has legal consequences for many activities taking place on that territory; and without these consequences concerning action, the norms would be irrelevant.
A more obviously action- oriented variety of such constitutive norms as opposed to deontic or regulatory norms establishes social institutions which give rise to new, previously inexistent types of actions or activities a standard example is the institution of marriage without which "getting married" would not be a feasible action; another is the rules constituting a game: without the norms of soccer, there would not exist such an action as executing an indirect free kick.
Any convention can create a norm, although the relation between both is not settled. There is a significant discussion about legal norms that give someone the power to create other norms. They are called power-conferring norms or norms of competence.
Some authors argue that they are still deontic norms, while others argue for a close connection between them and institutional facts see Raz , Ruiter Linguistic conventions, for example, the convention in English that "cat" means cat or the convention in Portuguese that "gato" means cat, are among the most important norms.
Games completely depend on norms. The fundamental norm of many games is the norm establishing who wins and loses. In other games, it is the norm establishing how to score points.
Some people say they are "prescriptively true" or false. Whereas the truth of a descriptive statement is purportedly based on its correspondence to reality, some philosophers, beginning with Aristotle, assert that the prescriptive truth of a prescriptive statement is based on its correspondence to right desire. Other philosophers maintain that norms are ultimately neither true or false, but only successful or unsuccessful valid or invalid , as their propositional content obtains or not see also John Searle and speech act.
There is an important difference between norms and normative propositions, although they are often expressed by identical sentences. Some ethical theories reject that there can be normative propositions, but these are accepted by cognitivism. One can also think of propositional norms; assertions and questions arguably express propositional norms they set a proposition as asserted or questioned. Another purported feature of norms, it is often argued, is that they never regard only natural properties or entities.
Norms always bring something artificial, conventional, institutional or "unworldly". This might be related to Hume's assertion that it is not possible to derive ought from is and to G. Moore's claim that there is a naturalistic fallacy when one tries to analyse "good" and "bad" in terms of a natural concept. In aesthetics, it has also been argued that it is impossible to derive an aesthetical predicate from a non-aesthetical one. The acceptability of non-natural properties, however, is strongly debated in present-day philosophy.
Some authors deny their existence, some others try to reduce them to natural ones, on which the former supervene. Other thinkers Adler, assert that norms can be natural in a different sense than that of "corresponding to something proceeding from the object of the prescription as a strictly internal source of action".
Rather, those who assert the existence of natural prescriptions say norms can suit a natural need on the part of the prescribed entity. More to the point, however, is the putting forward of the notion that just as descriptive statements being considered true are conditioned upon certain self-evident descriptive truths suiting the nature of reality such as: it is impossible for the same thing to be and not be at the same time and in the same manner , a prescriptive truth can suit the nature of the will through the authority of it being based upon self-evident prescriptive truths such as: one ought to desire what is really good for one and nothing else.
Recent works maintain that normativity has an important role in several different philosophical subjects, not only in ethics and philosophy of law see Dancy, Philosophy of business The philosophy of business considers the fundamental principles that underlie the formation and operation of a business enterprise; the nature and purpose of a business, and the moral obligations that pertain to it. Moral obligation The term moral obligation has a number of meanings in moral philosophy, in religion, and in layman's terms.
Generally speaking, when someone says of an act that it is a "moral obligation," they refer to a belief that the act is one prescribed by their set of values. Obligation being a set code by which a person is to follow.
Obligations can be found by an individual's peers that set a code that may go against the individual's own desires. The individual will express their morality by the person following the set code s through seeing it as good to appease society. Ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values.
As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions "What is the best way for people to live? As a field of intellectual enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory. Three major areas of study within ethics recognised today are: Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values if any can be determined 1.
Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action 2. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms sentient creatures".
The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' The word "ethics" in English refers to several things.
It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to answer various kinds of ethical questions. As the English philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: "What makes an inquiry a philosophical one is reflective generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally persuasive. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: "Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values, is a generic human capacity.
For example: "Joe has strange ethics. A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, "Is it ever possible to have secure knowledge of what is right and wrong?
Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics. For example, Aristotle implies that less precise knowledge is possible in ethics than in other spheres of inquiry, and he regards ethical knowledge as depending upon habit and acculturation in a way that makes it distinctive from other kinds of knowledge.
Meta-ethics is also important in G. Moore's Principia Ethica from In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy. Moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics. Earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non- cognitivism; this is similar to the contrast between descriptivists and non-descriptivists.
Non- cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false. We may for example be only expressing our emotional feelings about these things. The ontology of ethics is about value-bearing things or properties, i. Non-descriptivists and non- cognitivists believe that ethics does not need a specific ontology, since ethical propositions do not refer. This is known as an anti-realist position. Realists on the other hand must explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, how they have value, and why they guide and motivate our actions.
Normative ethics Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking.
Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.
Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people's moral beliefs. To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view called moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time.
Traditionally, normative ethics also known as moral theory was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions.
At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity of logical positivism.
In John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, noteworthy in its pursuit of moral arguments and eschewing of meta-ethics. This publication set the trend for renewed interest in normative ethics.
Virtue ethics Virtue ethics describes the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical behavior, and is used to describe the ethics of Socrates, Aristotle, and other early Greek philosophers.
Socrates — BC was one of the first Greek philosophers to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of humankind. In this view, knowledge bearing on human life was placed highest, while all other knowledge were secondary. Self-knowledge was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within his capabilities to his pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty.
To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact and its context relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge.
He posited that people will naturally do what is good, if they know what is right. Evil or bad actions are the result of ignorance. If a criminal was truly aware of the intellectual and spiritual consequences of his actions, he would neither commit nor even consider committing those actions. Any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Socrates.
While he correlated knowledge with virtue, he similarly equated virtue with joy. The truly wise man will know what is right, do what is good, and therefore be happy. Aristotle — BC posited an ethical system that may be termed "self-realizationism. At birth, a baby is not a person, but a potential person. To become a "real" person, the child's inherent potential must be realized.
Unhappiness and frustration are caused by the unrealized potential of a person, leading to failed goals and a poor life. Aristotle said, "Nature does nothing in vain. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal.
All other things, such as civic life or wealth, are merely means to the end. Self- realization, the awareness of one's nature and the development of one's talents, is the surest path to happiness. Physical nature can be assuaged through exercise and care, emotional nature through indulgence of instinct and urges, and mental through human reason and developed potential.
Rational development was considered the most important, as essential to philosophical self-awareness and as uniquely human. Moderation was encouraged, with the extremes seen as degraded and immoral. For example, courage is the moderate virtue between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness.
This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, to the proper extent, in the correct fashion, for the right reason.
Stoicism The Stoic philosopher Epictetus posited that the greatest good was contentment and serenity. Peace of mind, or Apatheia, was of the highest value; self-mastery over one's desires and emotions leads to spiritual peace. The "unconquerable will" is central to this philosophy. The individual's will should be independent and inviolate.
Allowing a person to disturb the mental equilibrium is in essence offering yourself in slavery. If a person is free to anger you at will, you have no control over your internal world, and therefore no freedom.
Freedom from material attachments is also necessary. If a thing breaks, the person should not be upset, but realize it was a thing that could break. Similarly, if someone should die, those close to them should hold to their serenity because the loved one was made of flesh and blood destined to death. Stoic philosophy says to accept things that cannot be changed, resigning oneself to existence and enduring in a rational fashion. Death is not feared. People do not "lose" their life, but instead "return", for they are returning to God who initially gave what the person is as a person.
Epictetus said difficult problems in life should not be avoided, but rather embraced. They are spiritual exercises needed for the health of the spirit, just as physical exercise is required for the health of the body.
He also stated that sex and sexual desire are to be avoided as the greatest threat to the integrity and equilibrium of a man's mind. Abstinence is highly desirable. Epictetus said remaining abstinent in the face of temptation was a victory for which a man could be proud. Contemporary virtue ethics Modern virtue ethics was popularized during the late 20th century in large part as a response to G.
Anscombe's "Modern Moral Philosophy". Anscombe argues that consequentialist and deontological ethics are only feasible as universal theories if the two schools ground themselves in divine law. As a deeply devoted Christian herself, Anscombe proposed that either those who do not give ethical credence to notions of divine law take up virtue ethics, which does not necessitate universal laws as agents themselves are investigated for virtue or vice and held up to "universal standards," or that those who wish to be utilitarian or consequentialist ground their theories in religious conviction.
Alasdair MacIntyre, who wrote the book After Virtue, was a key contributor and proponent of modern virtue ethics, although MacIntyre supports a relativistic account of virtue based on cultural norms, not objective standards.
Martha Nussbaum, a contemporary virtue ethicist, objects to MacIntyre's relativism, among that of others, and responds to relativist objections to form an objective account in her work "Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach.
There are several schools of Hedonist thought ranging from those advocating the indulgence of even momentary desires to those teaching a pursuit of spiritual bliss. In their consideration of consequences, they range from those advocating self-gratification regardless of the pain and expense to others, to those stating that the most ethical pursuit maximizes pleasure and happiness for the most people.
Cyrenaic hedonism Founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, Cyrenaics supported immediate gratification or pleasure. There was little to no concern with the future, the present dominating in the pursuit for immediate pleasure.
Cyrenaic hedonism encouraged the pursuit of enjoyment and indulgence without hesitation, believing pleasure to be the only good. Epicureanism Epicurean ethics is a hedonist form of virtue ethics. Epicurus "presented a sustained argument that pleasure, correctly understood, will coincide with virtue".
He rejected the extremism of the Cyrenaics, believing some pleasures and indulgences to be detrimental to human beings. Epicureans observed that indiscriminate indulgence sometimes resulted in negative consequences. Some experiences were therefore rejected out of hand, and some unpleasant experiences endured in the present to ensure a better life in the future.
To Epicurus the summum bonum, or greatest good, was prudence, exercised through moderation and caution. Excessive indulgence can be destructive to pleasure and can even lead to pain. For example, eating one food too often will cause a person to lose taste for it.
Eating too much food at once will lead to discomfort and ill-health. Pain and fear were to be avoided. Living was essentially good, barring pain and illness. Death was not to be feared. New Japanese Horizons. Zona Tropical Publications. Cornell University Press. Comstock Publishing.
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